PASSIVE VOICE

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Voz Pasiva

Verb Tense

Structure

Example

PRESENT SIMPLEam/are/is + ppSpanish is spoken here.
PRESENT CONTINUOUSam/are/is being + ppYour questions are being answered.
FUTURE (WILL)will be + pp It’ll be painted by next week.
FUTURE (GOING TO)am/are/is going to be + pp Terry is going to be made redundant next year.
PAST SIMPLEwas/were + ppWe were invited to the party, but we didn’t go.
PAST CONTINUOUSwas/were being + pp The hotel room was being cleaned when we got back from shopping.
PRESENT PERFECT have/has been + pp The President of America has been shot.
PAST PERFECThad been + ppWhen he got home he found that all of his money had been stolen.
FUTURE PERFECTwill have been + pp Our baby will have been born before Christmas.


Examples:

*Service can be detected and corrected
El servicio puede ser detectado y corregido

*That problems will be passed on to the customer
Esos problemas se pasarán al cliente

*The final product will have to be reworked
El producto final tendra que ser reformulado

*Can be successfully aplied to either
Puede ser exitosamente aplicado a ambos

*A cereal packaging line may be designed
Una linea de empaquetado de cereal puede ser diseñado

*More and more product will be producted
más y más producto se producira

*when an action should be taken in a process
cuando una acción debe ser tomada en un proceso

*This car was made in 1963
Este coche fue echo en 1963

*This house was built by my mother
Esta casa fue construida por mi madre

*Washington was bombed by Pakistan
Washington, fue bombardeada por el Pakistán

*German is spoken here
Aquí se habla alemán

*When was this house built?
¿Cuando se construyó esta casa?

*A lot of songs have been written about love
Una gran cantidad de canciones se han escrito sobre el amor


*The lesson was understood by Marietta.
La lección fue entendida por Marietta.

*The radio is listened by Ralph
La radio es escuchada por Ralph

*Many whales are killed daily by some criminal people
Muchas ballenas son eliminadas diariamente por algunos criminales

*The best meat will be exported towards other countries by Colombia
La mejor carne será exportada hacia otros países por Colombia

*Two fish have been eaten
Dos pescados han sido comidos

*The dresses have been bought by Elizabeth and Betty
Los vestidos han sido comprados por Isabel y Beatriz

*Her money was stolen
su dinero fue robado

*The water is heated to a temperature of from 60° to 80° C.
El agua es hervida a una temperatura de entre 60 a 80 grados.

SKIMMING

Es una técnica de lectura rápida donde se utiliza para localizar el sentido general de la lectura o cierta parte de ella.

Consiste en dar una lectura rápida, identificando ideas o frases claves; no es necesario leer cada palabra del texto. Se lee la primera oración de cada párrafo y se trata de identificar las frases o palabras clave de cada uno de ellos. Al final se extraen y se anotan a fin de descubrir la idea general del texto.


* Utilizar la tecnica de Skimming para descubrir la ideas principales del siguiente articulo:



COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Learning computer and Internet concepts is partly about learning new terms. So let's start with the most basic term of all—computer.


UNDERSTANDING THE COMPUTER:
BASIC DEFINITIONS

A computer is a machine that performs four basic operations: input, processing, output, and storage. Together, these four operations are called the information-processing cycle. Input, processing, output, storage—that's what computers do. The processing function relies on input; output depends on the results of processing; and storage is where output may be kept for later use. Because these operations depend on one another, the information-processing cycle is always performed in order.

You'll often hear the term computer system, which is normally shortened to system. This term is more inclusive than computer. A computer system is a collection of related components that have been designed to work together. These components can be broken down into two major categories: hardware and software. A computer system's hardware includes the physical components of the computer, including the system unit itself, as well as keyboards, monitors, speakers, and so on.

In order for a computer system's hard-ware to function, a computer needs a program. A program is a list of instructions that tells the computer how to perform the four operations in the information-processing cycle to accomplish a task. Software includes all of the programs that give the computer its instructions. You can divide software into two categories: system software and application software. System software includes all of the programs that help the computer function properly. The most important type of system software is the computer's operating system (OS), such as Microsoft Windows. Other parts of the system software include system utilities such as Help and antivirus programs. Application software consists of all of the programs you can use to perform a task, including word-processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, e-mail, and Web browser software.

To better understand how computer system components are interrelated, you might compare a computer system with an aquarium. The computer hardware is like the fish tank, the operating system is like the water, and the software applications are like the fish. You wouldn't put fish in an empty aquarium. Fish can't survive without water, just as software applications can't function without an operating system. And without the water and fish, an aquarium is an empty box, just like computer hardware isn't much use without an operating system and applications.

Now that we have the basic terms under our belt, let's take a closer look at the operations in the information-processing cycle (input, processing, output, and storage) and at the hardware devices involved in each step.


INPUT:
GETTING DATA INTO THE COMPUTER.

In the first operation, called input, the computer accepts data. The term data refers to unorganized raw facts, which can be made up of words, numbers, images, sounds, or a combination of these.

Input devices enable you to enter data into the computer for processing. The most common input devices are the keyboard and mouse, microphones, disk drives, and devices such as scanners and digital cameras offer other ways of getting data into the computer.

PROCESSING:
TRANSFORMING DATA INTO INFORMATION.


In the second operation, called processing, computers transform data into information. Information is data that have been simplified and organized in a way that people can use. During processing, the computer's processing circuitry, called the central processing unit (CPU) or microprocessor (or just processor for short), performs operations on the input data. The processor is located within the computer system's case, also called the system unit. Even though the CPU is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer, computers don't really "think" at all. They are only capable of simple, repetitive processing actions organized into an algorithm—a series of steps that result in the solution to a problem.

Because the CPU needs to juggle multiple input/output requests at the same time, it uses memory chips to store program instructions and data. Memory is essential to the smooth operation of the CPU. A typical computer includes several different types of memory, but the most important of these is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores the programs and data with which the CPU interacts.


OUTPUT:
DISPLAYING INFORMATION


In the third operation, called output, the computer provides the results of the processing operation in a way that people can understand. Output devices show the results of processing operations. The most common output devices are monitors and printers, or. if the computer is processing sounds, you may hear the results on the computer's speakers.


STORAGE:
HOLDING PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR FUTURE USE


In the fourth operation, called storage, the computer saves the results of processing to be used again later. Storage devices hold all of the programs and data that the computer system uses. Most computers are equipped with the following storage devices: a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, and a CD-ROM drive and/or DVD-ROM drive. These devices are commonly not removable and are mounted inside the system unit.

Although communications hasn't traditionally been a part of the information-processing cycle, it can be considered an additional step in the process.


COMMUNICATIONS:
MOVING DATA BETWEEN COMPUTERS


Communications, which is often the fifth operation in the information-processing cycle, involves moving data within the computer or between computers. To move data between computers, communications devices are necessary. Communications devices enable computers to connect to a computer network. A network is a group of two or more computer systems connected together, usually for the purpose of sharing input/output devices and other resources.

Most computers are equipped with a modem, a communications device that enables the computer to access other com-puters and the Internet via telephone lines, cable, and even wireless connections. Most modems are housed inside the system unit.

in a typical computer system, let's look at an example of how the computer uses the basic functions of input, processing, output, and storage.


THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING CYCLE IN ACTION

Even if you haven't wondered what goes on "behind the scenes" when using a computer, the following example illustrates your role and the computer's role in each step of the information-processing cycle.

•Input. You've just finished writing a research paper for one of your classes. You think it's probably riddled with misspellings and grammatical errors, so you run your word-processing program's spell checker on it. In this example, your entire word-processed document is the input.

•Processing. A spell checker makes use of the computer's ability to perform very simple processing operations at very high speeds. To check your document's spelling, the program begins by constructing a list of all of the words in your document. Then it compares these words, one by one, with a huge list of correctly spelled words. If you've used a word that isn't in the dictionary, the program puts the word into a list of apparent misspellings.

Note that the computer isn't really "checking spelling" when it performs this operation. The computer can't check your spelling because it doesn't possess the intelligence to do so. All it can do is tell you which of the words you've used aren't in the dictionary. Ultimately, only you can decide whether a given word is misspelled.

•Output. The result of the processing operation is a list of apparent misspellings. The word apparent is important here because the program doesn't actually know whether the word is misspelled. It is able to tell only that these words aren't in its massive, built-in dictionary. But many correctly spelled words, such as proper nouns (the names of people and places), aren't likely to be found in the computer's dictionary. For this reason, the program won't make any changes without asking you to confirm them.

•Storage. Once you've corrected the spelling in your document, you save or store the revised document to disk.

In sum, computers transform data (here, a document full of misspellings) into information (a document that is free of misspellings).


Up to this point, we've been talking about computers in general. We now need to examine the specific types of computers used in a wide variety of tasks and job situations.




SKIMMING

La idea principal del anterior articulo es practicamente la definición de lo que es una computadoras y la operaciones basicas que esta realiza: las entradas, salidas, procesamiento y almacenamiento de la información a estas cuatro operaciones se les llama el ciclo de procesamiento de la información.

De la misma forma desfine el concepto de sistema de computadoras y sus dos principales componentes : "Software y Hardware" .

Por ultimo se ejemplifica las operaciones basicas realizadas por una computadora a manera de comprender mejor estos conceptos.

PAST PERFECT

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Pasado Perfecto


Se usa el pasado perfecto para hablar de una acción que occurió antes de otra acción.

(+)

Estructura:


sujeto + had + Verbo en pasado participio


I had eaten something
You had talked to somebody
He had listened to something
She had read something
It had gone somewhere
We had looked at something
You had worn something
They had sat somewhere
The film had finished
Sarah had prepared dinner


Contracciones:

I had ---> I'd
You had ---> You'd
He had ---> He'd
She had ---> She'd
it had ---> It'd
We had ---> We'd
They had ---> They'd



(-)

Estructura:

sujeto + had not/ hadn't + Verbo en pasado participio


I had not eaten something
You had not talked to somebody
He hadn't listened to something
She hadn't read something
It had not gone somewhere
We hadn't looked at something
You had not worn something
They hadn't sat somewhere
The film hadn't finished
Sarah hadn't prepared dinner


(¿?)

Estructura:

Had + sujeto + Verbo en pasado participio


Had I eaten something?
Had you talked to somebody?
Had he listened to something?
Had she read something?
Had It gone somewhere?
Had we looked at something?
Had you worn something?
Had they sat somewhere?
Had the film finished?
Had Sarah prepared dinner?

PRESENT PERFECT

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Presente Perfecto


El presente perfecto se usa para narrar hechos que ya han concluido pero en un tiempo breve, como hace dos horas o en menos de un día.

El verbo en presente perfecto, se construye con el verbo auxiliar have o has, si es en tercera persona, he, she, it, más el participio del verbo.

(+)

Estructura:

sujeto + have/has + Verbo en Pasado participio.

I have eaten a apple
He has bought me a car
I have eaten something
You have talked to somebody
He has listened to something
She has read something
It has gone somewhere
We have looked at something
They have sat somewhere
He has cooked


Contracciones:

I have ---> I've
You have ---> You've
He has ---> He's
She has ---> She's
it has ---> It's
We have ---> We've
They have ---> They've


(-)

Estructura:

sujeto + have not/has not = haven't/hasn't + Verbo en Pasado participio.

I have not eaten a apple
He has not bought me a car
I haven't eaten something
You haven't talked to somebody
He hasn't listened to something
She has not read something
It has not gone somewhere
We have not looked at something
We haven't played
He hasn't cooked

(¿?)

Estructura:

have/has + sujeto + Verbo en Pasado participio.

Have I eaten a apple?
Has he bought me a car?
Have I eaten something?
Have you talked to somebody?
Has he listened to something?
Has she read something?
Has it gone somewhere?
Have we looked at something?
Have they played?
Has he cooked?

DISTANT FUTURE "will"

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Futuro lejano


(+)

Estructura:

Sujeto + will + verbo


I will go to New York
I will play tennis tomorrow
It will snow tomorrow
I will stay with you all night
We will go to the movies
I will help you
He will go home
They will play football
I will buy a book
I will go out this evening


Contracciones:

I will ---> I'll
You will ---> You'll
He will ---> He'll
She will ---> She'll
it will ---> It'll
We will ---> We'll
They Will ---> They'll


(-)

Estructura:

Sujeto + will not = won't + verbo


I won't go to New York
I won't play tennis tomorrow
It won't snow tomorrow
I won't stay with you all night
We won't go to the movies
I won't help you
He won't go home
They won't play football
I won't buy a book
I won't go out this evening


(¿?)

Estructura:

Will + Sujeto + verbo


Will I go to New York?
Will I play tennis tomorrow?
Will I stay with you all night?
Will we go to the movies?
Will I help you?
Will he go home?
Will they play football?
Will I buy a book?
Will you go out this evening?
Will she run tomorrow?

NEAR FUTURE "going to"

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Futuro Cercano


Para formar el futuro con "going to" necesitamos usar el presente simple del verbo "to be" (ser, estar) seguido de "going to" y luego otro verbo.


Estructura:

Sujeto + Verbo to be en infinitivo + going to + verbo en presente + complemento


(+)

He is going to study English at university.
We are going to go to the theatre next month.
I am going to study for my exams.
I am going to buy a new computer.
We are going to help you with your verbs.
They are going to cook lunch for us.
We think they are going to go abroad.
They have the feeling their company is going to expand.
You are going to talk to somebody.
They are going to sit somewhere.




(-)

Estructura:

Sujeto + Verbo to be en infinitivo + not + going to + verbo en presente + complemento


He is not going to study English at university.
We are not going to go theatre next month.
I am not going to study for my exams.
I am not going to buy a new computer.
We aren't going to help you with your verbs.
They are not going to cook lunch for us.
We think they are not going to go abroad.
They have the feeling their company isn't going to expand.
You aren't going to talk to somebody.
They aren't going to sit somewhere.


(¿?)

Estructura:

Verbo to be en infinitivo + Sujeto + going to + verbo en presente + complemento


Is he going to study English at university?.
Are we going to go theatre next month?.
Am I going to study for my exams?.
Am I going to buy a new computer?.
Are we going to help you with your verbs?.
Are they going to cook lunch for us?.
Is it going to go somewhere?
Are we going to look at something?
Are you going to talk to somebody?.
Are they going to sit somewhere?.

PAST CONTINUOUS

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Pasado continuo


Daniel was preparing dinner


Estructura:

Sujeto + Was/Were + Verbo + ing + complemento


I/He/She/It ----> Was

We/You/They ----> Were


(+)

I was eating something.
You were talking to somebody.
He was listening to something.
She was reading something.
It was going somewhere.
You were looking at something.
We were wearing something.
They were sitting somewhere.
I was sleeping somewhere
You were studing


(-)

Estructura:

Sujeto + Was/Were + not + Verbo + ing + complemento


I was not eating something.
You were not talking to somebody.
He wasn't listening to something.
She was not reading something.
It was not going somewhere.
You weren't looking at something.
We were not wearing something.
They weren't sitting somewhere.
I wasn't sleeping somewhere
You were not studing

(¿?)

Estructura:

Was/Were + Sujeto + Verbo + ing + complemento


Was I eating something ?
Were you talking to somebody?.
Was he listening to something?.
Was she reading something?.
Was it going somewhere?.
Were you looking at something?
Were we wearing something?.
Were they sitting somewhere?.
Was I sleeping somewhere?
Were you studing?

PAST SIMPLE

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Pasado Simple

Es un tiempo verbal que se utiliza para expresar acciones que tuvieron lugar en el pasado.

Para formar el pasado debemos poner el verbo en su forma pasada.

Los verbos regulares, para pasarlos al pasado, tienen que acabr en -ed.

to listen (escuchar) -> listened
solo tenemos que añadir la d cuando el verbo ya acaba en e.

to change (cambiar) -> changed

si la última vocal del verbo esta formada por consonante-vocal-consonante, y es en esta última consonante donde recae el acento, tenemos que doblar dicha consonante. También si el verbo acaba en l tenemos que doblarla.

to stop (parar) -> stopped
to travel (viajar) -> travelled

Example:

Forma Afirmativa

1.- I studied english
2.- I bought a car
3.- I played tennis
4.- She went to Paris
5.- He went to the party
6.- I listened music
7.- She danced in my house
8.- We lost yesterday
9.- I worked in office
10.- He drank a beer


En las formas negativas e interrogativas se emplea, una estructura similar; se utiliza el verbo auxiliar "to do" en su tiempo pasado, que acompaña al verbo principal en su forma infinitiva. " to did".

Example:

Forma Negativa

1.- I did not study english
2.- I did not buy a car
3.- I did not play tennis
4.- She did not go to Paris
5.- He did not go to the party
6.- I didn't listen music
7.- She did not dance in my house
8.- We didn't lose yesterday
9.- I did not work in office
10.- He didn't drink a beer

Forma Interrogativa

1.- Did I study english?
2.- Did I buy a car?
3.- Did I play tennis?
4.- Did she go to Paris?
5.- Did he go to the party?
6.- Did I listen music?
7.- Did she dance in my house?
8.- Did we lose yesterday?
9.- Did I work in office?
10.- Did he drink a beer?


Pasado Simple del Verbo "to be"


WasWere
IYou
SheWe
HeThey
It


(+)

Elvis Presley was born in 1977

(-)

Elvis Presley was not born in 1977

(?)

Was he born in 1977?

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Presente Progresivo



El Presente Progresivo se usa para indicar que una acción esta pasando en un momento especifico del presente.

La oración se construye de la siguiente manera:


Persona + "to be" + "verbo + ing" + complemento.


Se usa con las expresiones: now (ahora); right now (justo ahora) o in this moment (en este momento).



AFIRMATIVONEGATIVOINTERROGATIVO
I am I am notAm I ?
You areYou aren'tAre you?
We areWe aren'tAre we?
They areThey aren'tAre they?
He/She/It Is He/She/It Isn't Is He/She/It?


*Examples:

( + )

1.- I am studying english
2.- You are reading a book
3.- He is writing a letter
4.- The baby is crying
5.- The dog is sleeping
6.- He is walking
7.- We are working
8.- Adrian and Alice are eating a pizza
9.- My sister is sleeping
10.- Carlos is playing poker



( - )

1.- I am not studying english
2.- You aren't reading a book
3.- He isn't writing a letter
4.- The baby isn't crying
5.- The dog isn't sleeping
6.- He isn't walking
7.- We aren't working
8.- Adrian and Alice aren't eating a pizza
9.- My sister isn't sleeping
10.- Carlos isn't playing poker



( ¿? )

1.- Am I studying english?
2.- Are you reading a book?
3.- Is he writing a letter?
4.- Is crying the baby?
5.- Is sleeping the dog?
6.- Is he walking?
7.- Are we working?
8.- Are they eating a pizza?
9.- is sleeping?
10.-is playing poker?

PRESENT SIMPLE

* Ejemplos de oraciones en Presente simple


Se utiliza para hablar de acciones habituales, genéricas, que tienen lugar con cierta frecuencia, sin hacer referencia a si en el momento actual se están realizando.

Oraciones Afirmativas:

La forma del "present simple" coincide con la del infinitivo sin la partícula "to", salvo en la 3ª persona del singular en la que se le añade una "s".

Invinitivo

I /you/we/they

he/she/it

To eat (Comer)

eat

eats

To run (Correr)

run

runs



Si el verbo termina en "y" tras consonante, al formar la 3ª persona del singular se sustituye esta "y" por una "i", seguida de la terminación "es".

Invinitivo

I /you/we/they

he/she/it

To carry (Llevar)

carry

carries

To envy (Envidiar)

envy

envies



Si el verbo termina en "ss", "sh", "ch", "x", "o", al formar la 3º persona del singular se le añade "-es".


Invinitivo

I /you/we/they

he/she/it

To kiss (Besar)

kiss

kisses

To watch (Oservar)

watch

watches



*EXAMPLE:

1.- He runs in the house
2.- I jump in the bed.
3.- He drinks a lot of water
4.- She sings in the bathroom
5.- We walk in the park
6.- They sleep in the floor
7.- She dances in the garden
8.- I eat candies
9.- She cries in her bedroom
10.- You drive in the street



Oraciones Negativas:


Las oraciones negativas se forman con el auxiliar "to do", habitualmente en sus formas contraídas: "don´t" (= do not) para las personas "I, you, we, they", y "doesn´t" (= does not) para las personas "he, she, it".

*EXAMPLE:

1.- He doesn't run in the house
2.- I don't jump in the bed.
3.- He doesn't drink a lot of water
4.- She doesn't sing in the bathroom
5.- We don't walk in the park
6.- They don't sleep in the floor
7.- She doesn't dance in the garden
8.- I don't eat candies
9.- She doesn't cry in her bedroom
10.- You don't drive in the street



Oraciones Interrogativas:

La forma interrogativa se forma también con el auxiliar "to do" al comienzo de la oración ("do" con las personas "I, you, we, they"; "does" con "he, she, it").


*EXAMPLE:

1.- Does he run in the house?
2.- Do I jump in the bed?
3.- Does he drink a lot of water ?
4.- Does she sing in the bathroom?
5.- Do we walk in the park?
6.- Do they sleep in the floor ?
7.- Does she dance in the garden ?
8.- Do I eat candies ?
9.- Does she cry in her bedroom ?
10.- Do you drive in the street
?

COGNATES

* Del siguiente articulo hacer una lista de cognados y clasificarlos en Real, Close o False


COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

Learning computer and Internet concepts is partly about learning new terms. So let's start with the most basic term of all—computer.


UNDERSTANDING THE COMPUTER:
BASIC DEFINITIONS

A computer is a machine that performs four basic operations: input, processing, output, and storage. Together, these four operations are called the information-processing cycle. Input, processing, output, storage—that's what computers do. The processing function relies on input; output depends on the results of processing; and storage is where output may be kept for later use. Because these operations depend on one another, the information-processing cycle is always performed in order.

You'll often hear the term computer system, which is normally shortened to system. This term is more inclusive than computer. A computer system is a collection of related components that have been designed to work together. These components can be broken down into two major categories: hardware and software. A computer system's hardware includes the physical components of the computer, including the system unit itself, as well as keyboards, monitors, speakers, and so on.

In order for a computer system's hard-ware to function, a computer needs a program. A program is a list of instructions that tells the computer how to perform the four operations in the information-processing cycle to accomplish a task. Software includes all of the programs that give the computer its instructions. You can divide software into two categories: system software and application software. System software includes all of the programs that help the computer function properly. The most important type of system software is the computer's operating system (OS), such as Microsoft Windows. Other parts of the system software include system utilities such as Help and antivirus programs. Application software consists of all of the programs you can use to perform a task, including word-processing, spreadsheet, database, presentation, e-mail, and Web browser software.

To better understand how computer system components are interrelated, you might compare a computer system with an aquarium. The computer hardware is like the fish tank, the operating system is like the water, and the software applications are like the fish. You wouldn't put fish in an empty aquarium. Fish can't survive without water, just as software applications can't function without an operating system. And without the water and fish, an aquarium is an empty box, just like computer hardware isn't much use without an operating system and applications.

Now that we have the basic terms under our belt, let's take a closer look at the operations in the information-processing cycle (input, processing, output, and storage) and at the hardware devices involved in each step.


INPUT:
GETTING DATA INTO THE COMPUTER.


In the first operation, called input, the computer accepts data. The term data refers to unorganized raw facts, which can be made up of words, numbers, images, sounds, or a combination of these.

Input devices enable you to enter data into the computer for processing. The most common input devices are the keyboard and mouse, microphones, disk drives, and devices such as scanners and digital cameras offer other ways of getting data into the computer.

PROCESSING:
TRANSFORMING DATA INTO INFORMATION.

In the second operation, called processing, computers transform data into information. Information is data that have been simplified and organized in a way that people can use. During processing, the computer's processing circuitry, called the central processing unit (CPU) or microprocessor (or just processor for short), performs operations on the input data. The processor is located within the computer system's case, also called the system unit. Even though the CPU is often referred to as the "brain" of the computer, computers don't really "think" at all. They are only capable of simple, repetitive processing actions organized into an algorithm—a series of steps that result in the solution to a problem.

Because the CPU needs to juggle multiple input/output requests at the same time, it uses memory chips to store program instructions and data. Memory is essential to the smooth operation of the CPU. A typical computer includes several different types of memory, but the most important of these is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores the programs and data with which the CPU interacts.


OUTPUT:
DISPLAYING INFORMATION


In the third operation, called output, the computer provides the results of the processing operation in a way that people can understand. Output devices show the results of processing operations. The most common output devices are monitors and printers, or. if the computer is processing sounds, you may hear the results on the computer's speakers.


STORAGE:
HOLDING PROGRAMS AND DATA FOR FUTURE USE


In the fourth operation, called storage, the computer saves the results of processing to be used again later. Storage devices hold all of the programs and data that the computer system uses. Most computers are equipped with the following storage devices: a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, and a CD-ROM drive and/or DVD-ROM drive. These devices are commonly not removable and are mounted inside the system unit.

Although communications hasn't traditionally been a part of the information-processing cycle, it can be considered an additional step in the process.


COMMUNICATIONS:
MOVING DATA BETWEEN COMPUTERS


Communications, which is often the fifth operation in the information-processing cycle, involves moving data within the computer or between computers. To move data between computers, communications devices are necessary. Communications devices enable computers to connect to a computer network. A network is a group of two or more computer systems connected together, usually for the purpose of sharing input/output devices and other resources.

Most computers are equipped with a modem, a communications device that enables the computer to access other com-puters and the Internet via telephone lines, cable, and even wireless connections. Most modems are housed inside the system unit.

in a typical computer system, let's look at an example of how the computer uses the basic functions of input, processing, output, and storage.


THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING CYCLE IN ACTION

Even if you haven't wondered what goes on "behind the scenes" when using a computer, the following example illustrates your role and the computer's role in each step of the information-processing cycle.

•Input. You've just finished writing a research paper for one of your classes. You think it's probably riddled with misspellings and grammatical errors, so you run your word-processing program's spell checker on it. In this example, your entire word-processed document is the input.

•Processing. A spell checker makes use of the computer's ability to perform very simple processing operations at very high speeds. To check your document's spelling, the program begins by constructing a list of all of the words in your document. Then it compares these words, one by one, with a huge list of correctly spelled words. If you've used a word that isn't in the dictionary, the program puts the word into a list of apparent misspellings.

Note that the computer isn't really "checking spelling" when it performs this operation. The computer can't check your spelling because it doesn't possess the intelligence to do so. All it can do is tell you which of the words you've used aren't in the dictionary. Ultimately, only you can decide whether a given word is misspelled.

•Output. The result of the processing operation is a list of apparent misspellings. The word apparent is important here because the program doesn't actually know whether the word is misspelled. It is able to tell only that these words aren't in its massive, built-in dictionary. But many correctly spelled words, such as proper nouns (the names of people and places), aren't likely to be found in the computer's dictionary. For this reason, the program won't make any changes without asking you to confirm them.

•Storage. Once you've corrected the spelling in your document, you save or store the revised document to disk.

In sum, computers transform data (here, a document full of misspellings) into information (a document that is free of misspellings).

Up to this point, we've been talking about computers in general. We now need to examine the specific types of computers used in a wide variety of tasks and job situations.


TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers come in all sizes, from large to small. It's convenient to divide them into two categories: computers for individuals and computers for organizations. Computers for individuals are mainly designed for one user at a time. They process and store smaller amounts of data and programs, such as a research paper or a personal Web page. In contrast, computers for organizations are designed to meet the needs of many people concurrently. They process and store large amounts of data and more complex programs, such as all the research papers for every class on campus or the school's entire Web site. Computers are also categorized by power (their processing speed) and purpose (the tasks they perform).


COMPUTERS FOR INDIVIDUALS

A personal computer (PC), also called a microcomputer, is designed to meet the computing needs of an individual. The two most commonly used types of personal computers are Apple's Macintosh systems and the more numerous IBM-compatible personal computers, which are made by manufacturers such as Dell, Gateway, Sony, HP, and many others. These PCs are called "IBM-compatible" because the first such computer was made by IBM. The price range of personal computers has steadily dropped to between $300 and $3,000, even as they have become more powerful and useful.

Designed for use at a desk or in an office environment, a desktop computer is a personal computer that runs programs to help individuals accomplish their work more productively or to gain access to the Internet. Dell is the leading producer of desktop computers.

A notebook computer is small enough to fit into a briefcase and is portable, because many people need a computer to travel with them. Many notebook computers are as powerful as desktop computers and include nearly all of a desktop computer's components, such as speakers, a CD-ROM drive, and a modem. Notebook computers are generally manufactured by the same companies as desktop computers. Some of the most popular notebook computers are Dell's Inspiron series, Toshiba's Satellite and Tecra series, IBM's Thinkpad, HP's Pavillion, and, for Mac lovers, the Apple iBook. They range in price from $900 to over $3,000.

Laptop computers are like notebook computers except that they are a bit too large to fit into a briefcase. The most popular maker of laptop computers is IBM with models that range in price from $700 to as much as $3,000. Fewer laptops are being sold now that the smaller notebooks have become so powerful.

Subnotebooks are notebook computers that omit some components (such as a CD-ROM drive) so as to cut down on weight and size. A significant advantage of subnotebooks is that some of them weigh less than three pounds. For example, the newest Sony Vaio subnotebook weighs only 1.7 pounds and is less than 1 inch thick. One disadvantage of subnotebooks is that users must often carry along external disk drives and their attendant wiring. A sub-notebook might be used by a UPS driver or by salespeople whose specific computing needs do not require all of the peripherals and accessories that are available with desktops, notebooks, and laptops. The top manufacturers of subnotebooks are Sony and Panasonic. Subnotebooks range in price from $1,300 to $2,500.

A tablet PC is a type of notebook computer that has an LCD screen that the user can write on using a special-purpose pen or stylus. The user's handwriting is converted to standard text through handwriting-recognition software or it can remain as handwritten text. Tablet PCs also typically have a keyboard and/or a mouse for input. HP's Compaq brand is the most popular, with prices ranging from $1,000 to over $3,900. Toshiba and Acer are two other brands in the top 10 manufacturers. Tablet PC prices will come down as they become more accepted in the marketplace and their production numbers increase.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs), sometimes called handheld computers, pack much of a notebook's power into a much lighter package and lower price (between $350 and $700). Most PDAs include built-in software for scheduling appointments and sending and receiving e-mail. Pen computers accept handwritten input. The Palm series, Sony's CLIE series, HP's iPAQ series, and BlackBerry are the most popular PDAs.

All-in-one computers, such as the Apple iMac, are essentially a monitor with everything else built in. The only external devices are a keyboard and a mouse. The microprocessor, memory, storage, and speakers are all contained within the monitor case. This design may be the wave of the future. The Gateway Profile, the Sony Vaio W, and a relatively new player—the Pelham Sloane PS 1500—are all major players in the all-in-one market. All-in-one computers cost about the same as other desktop PCs, ranging from $1,400 to $2,300.

Network computers (NCs) and Internet appliances provide much of a personal computer's functionality but at a lower price. These computers are designed to connect to a network, such as the Internet. In the consumer market, NCs such as MSN TV enable consumers to use their televisions to connect to the Internet. Because they have limited memory, disk storage, and processing power, NCs rely on computer networks for their power and software. Popular in the mid to late 1990s, they haven't been able to achieve much of a hold in the marketplace.

Professional workstations are powerful tools for engineers, architects, circuit designers, financial analysts, and other professionals who need exceptionally powerful processing and output capabilities. HP dominates the workstation market. It produces workstations that range in price from $1,000 to over $7,000, making workstations the most expensive type of computer made for individuals.


COMPUTERS FOR ORGANIZATIONS

Servers are computers that make programs and data available to people who are connected to a computer network. They are not designed for individual use and are typically centralized or operated from one location. Users connect to the network on clients, which can be desktops, laptops, workstations, or any other computer for individuals, to contact the server and obtain the needed information. This use of remote or off-site clients and centralized servers is called client/server computing. It plays an important role in today's businesses. Servers can be as small as a microcomputer or as large as a mainframe. The top three server manufacturers are IBM, Sun Microsystems, and Dell. Servers typically cost between $1,000 and upwards of $30,000, but HP UNIX servers run from $100,000 to over $1 million!

Minicomputers, also referred to as midrange servers, are midsize computers that handle the computing needs of a smaller corporation or organization. They enable dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of users to connect to them simultaneously through PCs or terminals.

Terminals are basically computers that lack processing capabilities. They simply receive input via a remote keyboard and display output on a monitor. Minicomputers can be slightly larger than microcomputers or as big as a washing machine. In recent years, the minicomputer market has waned.

Mainframes
are designed to handle huge processing jobs in large corporations or government agencies. For example, an airline may use a mainframe to handle airline reservations. Some mainframes are designed to be used by hundreds of thousands of people at the same time. People connect to mainframes using terminals or PCs. Mainframes are usually stored in special, secure rooms that have a controlled climate. They are manufactured by firms such as IBM, Honeywell, and HP/Agilent, cost hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars, and are very powerful.

Supercomputers are ultrafast computers that process large amounts of scientific data and then display the underlying patterns that have been discovered in the data. In 2000, IBM announced that it had built a supercomputer capable of executing 12 trillion calculations per second. Known as the ASCI White, the supercomputer covers an area the size of two basketball courts and is used by the Department of Energy. In March of 2002, Japan's NEC Corporation announced it had created an even faster supercomputer. The system, known as "the Earth Simulator," takes up the space of four tennis courts and is said to be five times faster than the ASCI White. A supercomputer's price tag is also large—from $1 million to $20 million.

Now that you know the variety of computers available, let's look at how their use has an impact on you as an individual and on society in general.


LISTA DE COGNADOS



REAL

CLOSE

FALSE

Internet

Computer

Performs

Hardware

Concept

Use

Software

Basic

Inclusive

Antivirus

Definition

Divide

Digital

Operation

Properly

Central

Information

Closer

Multiple

Function

Large

Monitor

Depend

Individuals

Modem

Order

Numerous

Cable

System

.

Simple

Collection

.

General

Components

.

Divide

Categories

.

Personal

Problem

.

Web

List

.

Macintosh

Instructions

.

Compatible

Application

.

Popular

Important

.

...

Consists

.

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Presentation

.

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Aquarium

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Data

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.

Images

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Combination

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Microphones

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Scanners

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Cameras

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Solution

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Result

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Communication

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Traditional

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Telephone

.

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Cycle

.

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Classes

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Document

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.

Dictionary

.

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Intelligence

.

.

Organization

.

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Microcomputer

.

.

Special

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.

Production

.

.

Professional

.

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Client

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.

Corporation

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Terminals

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Minicomputers

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Supercomputers

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Japan

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